The Arctic is a geographical and geopolitical concept, defined as the Earth's polar region surrounding the North Pole, lying north of the Arctic Circle (approximately 66°34'N latitude). Geographically, it encompasses the Arctic Ocean and parts of eight countries: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Alaska). An ecological definition also includes the area where the average temperature of the warmest month (July) is below 10°C.
The concept's modern significance is rooted in international cooperation and, more recently, geopolitical competition. The primary institution governing the region is the Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum established in 1996 by the Ottawa Declaration. Its purpose is to promote cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the eight Arctic States and six Permanent Participants representing Indigenous Peoples on issues of sustainable development and environmental protection. The Council's work is carried out through six working groups, such as the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) and the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME). It operates by consensus and explicitly excludes military security from its mandate.
The Arctic is currently undergoing rapid transformation due to climate change, which is causing the region to warm at over twice the global average, a phenomenon known as "Arctic amplification". This change has significantly altered the region's dynamics: the melting sea ice is opening new maritime routes, such as the Northern Sea Route (NSR), and exposing vast reserves of hydrocarbons and critical minerals. This has amplified existing geopolitical tensions, as the increased accessibility and resource potential have made the Arctic a new strategic arena for major powers, including Russia, the US, and China. A major recent change is the disruption of the Arctic Council's cooperative mechanism, as seven of the eight Arctic States paused their participation in all Council work following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in early 2022. This has fractured circumpolar governance, even as the need for cooperation on environmental issues remains critical.