"Environment & Ecology" is a fundamental concept where Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between living organisms and their surroundings. The Environment encompasses all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that affect an organism. The modern legal framework in India is largely an outcome of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. This led to the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, which inserted Article 48A (State's duty) and Article 51A(g) (citizen's duty) to protect and improve the environment.
The primary legal instrument is the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA), an umbrella legislation enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy in December 1984 to provide a comprehensive framework. The EPA empowers the Central Government to set national standards for environmental quality, control emissions, and regulate industrial locations. It also allows any citizen to file a complaint against violations after giving 60 days' notice. This framework connects to specific laws like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Judicial oversight is provided by the National Green Tribunal (NGT), established by the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010. Landmark judgments, such as Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996), established principles like the Polluter Pays Principle. Recently, in 2023, the EPA and other key environmental laws were "decriminalised," replacing potential imprisonment with increased financial penalties. Furthermore, the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, was passed to amend the existing law.