The Indus River is a great trans-Himalayan river of South Asia, originating in the mountains of Tibet and flowing approximately 3,200 kilometers through China, India, and Pakistan before emptying into the Arabian Sea. Its name is derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which is also the source of the name "India". Historically, the river is the cradle of the Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan Civilization), one of the world's earliest urban societies, which flourished along its banks from approximately 3300 to 1300 BCE.
The river's modern significance is defined by the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), an international water-sharing agreement signed between India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, and brokered by the World Bank. The treaty's core mechanism divides the six rivers of the Indus system: the waters of the three eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) were allocated for the unrestricted use of India, while the waters of the three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) were allocated to Pakistan. India is obligated to let the western rivers flow, with limited rights for non-consumptive uses like power generation. The treaty established the Permanent Indus Commission to manage cooperation.
Recently, the treaty has faced significant strain despite its resilience through past conflicts. In 2022, the World Bank appointed both a neutral expert and a court of arbitration to address disputes over Indian hydroelectric projects. Furthermore, in 2023, India invoked a provision to request a bilateral modification of the treaty, and in April 2025, India announced it would hold the IWT in "abeyance" following a terror attack, though the treaty contains no clause for unilateral suspension.